The Black Sea is one of the largest almost enclosed seas in the world: its area is about 420 thousands km2, the maximum water depth 2.212 m, the total water volume of about 534,000 km3.The Black Sea is placed in the southeastern part of the Europe between 40° 54? 40? and 46° 34? 30? northern latitudes, 27 27? and 41? 46? 30? eastern longitudes. The sea is roughly oval-shaped. The maximum extent of the sea in the east-west direction is about 1175 km, while the shortest distance is of some 260 km between the southernmost tip of the Crimea and the Cape Kerempe on the Turkish coast (Fig. 1B.1). The Black Sea is connected to the Mediterranean Sea to the west and to the Sea of Azov to the north. The connection with the Mediterranean Sea is limited to the Istanbul-Canakkale (Bosporus-Dardanelles) straits. The Istanbul Strait is a rather narrow (0.76 ? 3.6 km large) and shallow strait (presently 32 ? 34 m at the sill) restricting the two-way water exchange between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. The other connection, with the Sea of Azov is realized by the Strait of Kerch.
Fig. 1B.1. Geomorphologic zoning of the Black Sea (after Ross et al.,1974, Panin and Ion, 1997).
Legend; 1, continental shelf; 2, continental slope; 3, basin apron: 3 a - deep sea fan complexes; 3 b - lower apron; 4, deep sea (abyssal) plain; 5, paleo-channels on the continental shelf filled up with Holocene and recent fine grained sediments; 6, main submarine valleys - canyons; 7, paleo-cliffs near the shelf break; 8, fracture zones expressed in the bottom morphology.
The Black Sea is surrounded by high folded mountain chains represented by the Balkanides-Pontides belts to the south-west and south, by the Great and Little Caucasus to the east and by the Crimea Mountains to the north. There are low-standing plateaux and the Danube delta lowland only in the west and north-west. On the opposite eastern side there is the Kolkhida lowland of smaller extent. Consequently the relief energy is much higher on the eastern and southern costs than on the northwestern shore.
Fig. 1B.2. Tectonic sketch of the Black Sea Region (after Dinu et al., 2003; Panin et al., 1994).
Legend: 1, Orogene overthrust front; 2, Gravitational faults of the rift; 3, Major strike-slip faults; 4, Major faults; 5, Limits of depressions and/or ridges; 6, Zone without granitic crust; 7, Thinned crust. Explanation of abbreviations:? I. Platform regions: East European, Scytian, Moesian: II. Orogenic regions: North Dobrogea Orogene, Greater Caucasus, South Crimea Orogene ? SCO, Balkanides, Western and Eastern Pontides; III. Depressions and ridges: PDD ? Pre-Dobrogean Depression; NKLD ? North Kilia Depression; KD ? Karkinit Depression; HD ? Histria Depression; SD ? Sorokin Depression; KTD ? Kerci-Taman Depression; NKD ? Nijne-Kamchiisk Depression; BD ? Burgas Depression; ATD ? Adjaro-Trialet Depression; TB ? Tuapse Basin; SSR ? Suvorov-Snake Island Ridge; KR ? Krymskyi Ridge; AR ? Azov Ridge; GR ? Bubkin Ridge; IV. WBS ? Western Black Sea; V. EBS ? Eastern Black Sea;
The Black Sea basin can be divided into four physiographic provinces: the shelf representing about 29.9% of the total area of the sea, the basin slope - about 27.3% of the total area, the basin apron, with 30.6%, and the abyssal plain - 12.2% (Fig. 1B.1). One of the most prominent physiographic features is the very large shallow (less than 200 m deep) continental shelf within the northwestern Black Sea (about 25 % of the total area of the sea). The Crimean, Caucasian and southern coastal zones are bordered by very narrow shelves and often intersected by the submarine canyons.
Geologists consider the Black Sea a back-arc marginal extensional basin, which originated from the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys along the southern margin of the Eurasian plate under a Cretaceous-Early Tertiary volcanic arc (Letouzey et al., 1977; Dercourt et al., 1986; Zonenshain and Le Pichon, 1986) as a result of the northward movement of the Arabic plate (Fig. 1B.2).
Since about 120 million years ago, the area has been a marine basin, with extremely dynamic development and large sediment accumulation of about 13 km of bottom sediment thickness in the central part of the basin. There are two extensional sub-basins with different geological history (Fig. 1B.2): (1) the Western Black Sea Basin, which was opened by the rifting of the Moesian Platform some 110 Ma ago (Late Barremian) followed by major subsidence and probable oceanic crust formation about 90 Ma ago (Cenomanian) (Astyushkov, 1992; Finetti et al., 1988; G?r?r, 1988) and (2) the Eastern Black Sea Basin, with rifting beginning probably in the Late Palaeocene (about 55 Ma ago), and extension and probable oceanic crust generation in the Middle Eocene (ca.45 Ma ago) (Robinson et al., 1995).
The Black Sea has an extremely large drainage basin of more than 2 million km2, collecting the water from almost all the European countries, except the westernmost ones. The northwestern Black Sea receives the discharge of the largest rivers in the Black Sea drainage area ? the Danube River with a mean water discharge of about 200 km3/yr and the Ukrainian rivers Dniepr, Southern Bug and Dniestr contributing with about 65 km3/yr (Table 1B.1). Presently the influence of the Danube River is predominant for the sedimentation on the northwestern Black Sea shelf area.
The Danube influence extends far southward up to the Bosporus region, as well as down to the deep sea floor. Presently the other three tributaries of the north-western Black Sea (Dniestr, Dniepr and Southern Bug) are not significant suppliers of sediments because they are discharging their sedimentary load into lagoons separated from the sea by beach barriers.
| Rivers | Length
(Km) |
Drainage basin
Area? (Km2) |
Water discharge
(Km3/yr) |
Sediment
discharge (Mt/yr) |
|
I. North-Western Black Sea |
||||
| Danube | 2,860 | 817,000 | 190.7 | 51.70** |
| Dniestr | 1,360 | 72,100 | 9.8 | 2.50* |
| Dniepr | 2,285 | 503,000 | 52.6 | 2.12* |
| Southern Bug | 806 | 63,700 | 2.6 | 0.53* |
| Sub-total I: | 1,455,800 | 255.7 | 56.85 | |
|
II. Sea of Azov |
||||
| Don | 1,870 | 442,500 | 29.5 | 6.40* |
| Kuban | 870 | 57,900 | 13.4 | 8.40* |
| Sub-total II: | 500,400 | 42.9 | 14.80 | |
| III. Caucasian coast rivers | 41.0* | 29.00* | ||
| IV. Anatolian coast rivers | 29.7 | 51.00* | ||
| V. Bulgarian coast rivers | 3.0* | 0.50* | ||
| T O T A L : | 372.3 | 152.15 | ||
Fig. 1B.3. The decreasing trend of the Danube River sediment discharge after damming (Iron Gates I barrage in 1970, Iron Gates II barrage in 1983).
After the damming of the Danube River at Iron Gates I and II, the river sediment discharge diminished by almost 40-45 % (Fig. 1B.3), and the real sediment load brought by the Danube into the Black Sea is not larger than 30-40 million t/yr, of which only 10-12 % is sandy material and contributes to the littoral sedimentary budget of the delta front zone.
The sedimentary systems in the Black Sea have been strongly influenced by the sea level changes driven by the processes of global glaciation and deglaciation. The surrounding relief and the physiography of the basin play also a very important role in defining the sedimentary systems. The eastern and southern parts of the sea are characterized by high relief energy and narrow continental shelf; this facilitates the direct transfer of sediments from the continent to the deep sea and determines a coarser grain size of these sediments. The western and north-western parts of the Black Sea have wide shelf and lower relief. Instead here the largest rivers are supplying important quantities of sediments, much finer (mainly silty-clay sediments).
North-western continental shelf: On the north-western Black Sea shelf area, the dispersal pattern of the Danube sediment supply indicates the existence of two main areas with different depositional processes (Panin et al., 1998): the Danube sediment-fed internal shelf and the sediment starving, external shelf (Fig. 1B.4).
Generally speaking, on the continental shelf the following sedimentary facies can be recognised (Shcherbakov and Babak, 1979):
Modiolus Mud: The Modiolus Mud is located at the top of the sedimentary sequence between 50 to 125 m of water depth. It is a light coloured mud, very rich in Modiolus phaseolinus coquinas whose thickness does not normally exceed 30 cm.
Mytilus Mud: The Mytilus (Mytilus galloprovincialis) mud is present from the shelf break till the depth of 50 to 40 m; further it is covered by the Modiolus Mud
Dreissena Mud: Around 130 m of water depth the surficial sediment is made of shells of Dreissena. Landward, this unit is covered by the Mytilus Mud and by the Modiolus Mud. The Dreissena Mud is outcropping only at the top of the continental slope.
The vertical transition in between Dreissena Mud to Mytilus Mud corresponds to the change from fresh/brackish to marine conditions in the Black Sea.
Internal, Danube sediment - fed shelf: The sediment-fed area in the neighbourhood of the Danube Delta includes the delta front unit (about 1,300 km2) and towards off-shore, at the base of the delta front to 50-60 m depth, the prodelta covering an area of more than 6,000 km2. Its southern boundary is more difficult to define on account of the strong southward drift of fine grained sediment load discharged into the sea by the Danube, which is stumping the prodelta limit.
Fig. 1B.4. Main sedimentary environments in the northwestern Black Sea (after Panin et al., 1998).
Legend: 1-2, Areas under the influence of the Ukrainian rivers? sediment discharge (A ? Dniester and B ? Dnieper); 3, Danube Delta Front area; 4, Danube Prodelta area; 5-6, Western Black Sea continental shelf areas (5, under the influence of the Danube-borne sediment drift; 6, sediment starved area); 7, Shelf break and uppermost continental slope zone; 8, Deep-sea fans area; 9, Deep-sea floor area.
Out of the area defined as the prodelta unit, the internal, western zone of the Romanian shelf stands out as the shallow marine area (less than 50 -60 m water depth), which receives clay and siltic sediments, supplied by the Danube River. Moving as a suspended load, the sediment flux goes beyond the area in front of the Danube Delta but does not reach the eastern, external shelf zone. Under the influence of the dominant currents, the "clayey-silty" sediment flux moves southward toward the Bulgarian shelf, keeping within the western shelf area, close to the shoreline and finally discharging the sediment load in the deep-sea zone within the pre-Bosporus region.
External, sediment starving shelf: Situated outside the area covered by the Danube fed sediment flux the external, eastern part of the continental shelf represents an area practically deprived of clastic material (Fig. 1B.5). Within this sediment starving shelf area, the condensed sediment accumulation is of biogenic origin, producing an organic thin cover on relict sediments or concentrations of shells. The Danubian sediments seldom reach the shelf area north or northwest of the Danube mouths. Dniester and Dniepr, the main rivers north of Danube Delta, are themselves, as already mentioned, not significant suppliers of sediment for the north-western Black Sea shelf. Consequently, the sediment starving status characterizes almost all of the whole Black Sea continental shelf west of the Crimean Peninsula.
Fig. 1B.5. Repartition of litho-stratigraphic units on the sea floor in the NW Black Sea (from S. Radan, unpublished data).
Deep sea zone of the western Black Sea: During the Upper Quaternary, in correlation with the sea-level fluctuations of this period, very large accumulations of sediments were formed in the deep-sea zone of the north-western Black Sea, mainly on the continental slope and apron areas. This accumulation is represented by two distinct but interfingering fans: the Danube fan fed by the River Danube during fan accretion and the Dniepr fan built up by the Ukrainian rivers Dniepr, Dniestr and Bug. Eight seismic sequences have been identified within each of these fans (Wong et al., 1994, 1997). While the lowermost two consist mainly of mass transport-related deposits, the six upper sequences comprise typical fan facies associations, corresponding mainly to the low stands of the sea level related to the glacials.
The interpretation of seismic sequences show that the Danube and Dniepr fans were accreted during the past 480 k.yr (sequences 3 to 8). Average deposition rates for the fan sequences range from 2.4 to 7.2 m/k.yr and the volume of material deposited within a sea level cycle lies between 4,300 km? and 9,590 km?.
Within the deep-sea zone of the Black Sea, the existing accumulation of recent sediments is represented by coccolith ooze overlying sapropelic or organogen sediments (Ross et al., 1970) highlighting the domination of the organic component over the detrital one. Ross and Degens (1974) have defined the following succession of the upper sediment layers:
Unit I ? coccolith ooze (0 - 3,000 yrs BP) : micro laminated carbonated? sediment with Emiliana huxleyi
Unit II ? sapropel beds (3,000 - 7,000 yrs BP) ? micro laminated sediment very rich in organic matter (sapropel)
Unit III ? banded lutite (7,000 - 25,000 yrs BP) ? banded lutites ? turbidites.
These units correspond to the Arkhangelskiy and Strakhov?s (1938) stratigraphic units: (1) recent deposits; (2) Old Black Sea beds, and (3) Neoeuxinian deposits (Tables 1B.2 and 1.3).
Very seldom and locally spread gravitationally transported material and mainly hemipelagic sediments occur within the slope, apron and abyssal zones, during this high stand sea level. ?
Large-scale sea level changes and consequently drastic reshaping of land morphology, large accumulation of sediments in the deep part of the sea and modifications of environmental settings occurred all along the Black Sea geologic history. The Quaternary was especially characterised by very spectacular changes, which have been driven by the global glaciations and deglaciations.
During these changes the Black Sea level behaviour was influenced by the restricted connection with the Mediterranean Sea by the Bosporus ? Dardanelles Straits. When the general sea level lowered below the Bosporus sill, the further variations of the Black Sea level followed specific regional conditions, without being necessarily coupled to the ocean level changes. One of the main consequences of the lowstands was the interruption of the Mediterranean water into the Black Sea, which became an almost freshwater giant lake.
The main glacial periods of the Quaternary in Europe (Danube, G?nz, Mindel, Riss and W?rm) corresponded to the regressive phases of the Black Sea, with lowstands of the water level down to ?120 m. As mentioned above, the regressions represent phases of isolation of the Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea and the World Ocean. Only the connection with the Caspian Sea could sometimes continue through Manytch valley. Correspondingly, during regressions, under fresh water conditions, the particularities of fauna assemblages had a pronounced Caspian character. On the contrary, during the interglacials, the water level rose to levels close to the present level; the Black Sea was reconnected to the Mediterranean Sea, and the environmental conditions as well as the fauna characteristics underwent marine Mediterranean influences.
For example, during the Karangatian phase (since 125 ka BP to ~ 65 ka BP) of the Black Sea, which corresponds to the warm Riss-W?rmian (Mikulinian) interglacial (Fig. 1B.6), the water level exceeded the present-day level by 8 to 12 m. The saline Mediterranean water penetrated through the Bosporus, and the Black Sea became saline (30 to 37?), with a steno- and eury-haline marine Mediterranean type fauna (Nevesskaya, 1970). The sea covered the lowlands in the coastal zone.
Fig. 1B.6. Plaeo-geographic reconstruction of the Black Sea during the Karangatian phase (Riss-W?rmian or Mikulinian interglacial) (after Tchepalyga, 2002).
The last Upper W?rmian glaciation (Late Valdai, Ostashkovian) corresponds to the Neoeuxinian phase of the Black Sea. This is a very low-stand phase, down to -110 - 130 m. The shoreline moved far away from the present-day position, especially in the north-western part of the Black Sea, and large areas of the continental shelf were exposed (Fig. 1B.7). The hydrographic network, especially the large rivers as Palaeo-Danube and Palaeo-Dniepr, incised up to 90 m the exposed areas. The Neoeuxinian basin, during the glacial maximum (~19 ? 16 ka BP) was completely isolated from the Mediterranean Sea, and, correspondingly, the water became brackish and even fresh (3-7? and even less), well oxygenated, without H2S contamination. The fauna was brackish to fresh water type with Caspian influence.
At about 16 - 15 ka BP, the postglacial warming and the ice caps melting started. As the supply of the melting water from the glaciers through the Dniepr and the Dniestr rivers, as well as the Danube river to the Black Sea was very direct and important, the Neoeuxinian sea-level rose very quickly, reaching and overpassing at ~ 12 ka BP the Bosporus sill altitude. The majority of scientists, who studied the Black Sea, believe that in this phase it was a large fresh-water outflow through the Bosporus-Dardanelles straits towards the Mediterranean (Aegean) Sea. Kvasov calculated (1975) that the fresh water outflow discharge was of about 190 km3/year.
Fig. 1B.7. Palaeo-geographic reconstruction of the Black Sea during the Neoeuxinian phase (
Upper W?rmian) (after Tchepalyga, 2002).At the beginning of the Holocene, some 9-7.5 ka BP, when the Mediterranean and the Black Seas have reached the same level (close to the present day one), the two-way water exchange was established, and the process of transformation of the Black Sea in an anoxic brackish sea started. During the last 3 ka BP, a number of smaller oscillations of the water level have been recorded (?Phanagorian regression?, ?Nymphaean? transgression, a lowering of 1-2 m in the X-th century AD, a slow rising continuing even today).
In the late nineties, a new hypothesis was formulated by Ryan et al. (1997). They considered that, when the deglaciation started during a short episode, the level of the Black Sea was high enough, and the fresh Pontic water flowed towards the Aegean Sea. At about 12 k.yr BP, the retreat of the ice-sheet front determined the reorienting towards the North Sea, for the limited period of time of melt-water supply. The Black Sea, without the inflow of the ice-melting water during the Younger Drias cooling (~11 ka BP) until 9 ka BP, under more arid and windy climate, experienced a new lowering of the level (down to -156 m). At the same time, the Mediterranean Sea continued to rise, reaching by 7.5 K.yr BP the height of the Bosporus sill, and generating a massive input of salt water into the Black Sea basin. The flux was several hundred times greater than the world?s largest waterfall, and it caused a rise of the level of the Black Sea, some 30 to 60 cm per day topping up the basin in few years time. More recent interpretation concludes that a deeper Bosporus sill (~ -85 m) could lead to another scenario of mixing of Black Sea and Mediterranean waters (Major et al., 2002).
This new hypothesis is still under debate; numerous data from the straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles, Marmara and Aegean Seas and the Danube Delta do not entirely support the Ryan?s hypothesis. These data indicates that the ?classical? scenario of Black Sea water outflow is rather credible. There are also some hydraulic incompatibilities for accepting a catastrophic flooding event in the Black Sea as well as a different time scale for reaching the present day salinity of the Black Sea waters (Myers at al., 2003). The scenario proposed by the EU ?Assemblage? project (Lericolais et al., 2006) after an extensive study of the western Black Sea is synthesized as shown in Fig. 1B.8.
Fig. 1B.8. The scenario of the Black Sea water level fluctuation since the Last Glacial Maximum (after Lericolais at al., 2006, Final Report of the EU project ?Assemblage?)
The water brought to the Black Sea after the Melt Water Pulse 1A (MWP1A) at approximately 12,500 C14 BP (14,500 yr cal. BP) (Bard et al., 1990) was supposed to be sufficiently important that the water level rose up to between -40 m to -20 m, where the Dreissena layers were deposited. This water level would have brought the level of the Black Sea high enough for making possible an inflow of Mediterranean water with marine species of dinoflagellates (Popescu, 2004), and an outflow of Pontic waters towards Mediterranean Sea. Palynological studies show that during the Younger Dryas a cool and drier climate prevailed. The Younger Dryas climatic event had lowered the Black Sea water-level and cut again the connection with the Mediterranean Sea. Around 7.5 kyr BP, the Black Sea water level suddenly changed because of a quite abrupt flooding of the Black Sea by Mediterranean waters, as supposed by Ryan et al. (1997, 2003) supported with dinoflagellate cyst records (Popescu, 2004).
Table 1B.2. Stratigraphy and correlations of Upper Quaternary phases for the coastal and inner shelf zones (with slight modification from Fedorov, 1978).
|
General scale |
Europe |
?European Russia |
Black Sea region | ||||||||
|
General stratigraphic scale |
W and NW Black Sea | Northern Black Sea
Crimea, Kerch, Taman |
Eastern Black Sea Caucasus | ||||||||
|
Holocene |
Flandrian |
Holocene |
Black Sea Horizon |
Nymphean | Terrace at 2 m; sands with
Cardium edule L. etc.?? |
Terrace at 2 m; Sands with Cardium edule L. etc.?? |
Terrace at 2 m; sands with Cardium edule L. etc.?? | ||||
| Phanagorian | Regression to ? 6 ? 8 m.
Archeological layers V?I c. BC |
Regression to ? 6 ? 8 m. Archeological layers V?I c. BC |
Regression to ? 6 - 8 m. Archeological layers V?I c. BC | ||||||||
| New Black Sea | Terrace at +4 +5 m;
sands and shells with Cardium edule L., Chlamys, Ostrea, Mytilus? |
Terrace at +4 +5 m; sands and shells with Cardium edule L., Chlamys, Ostrea, Mytilus? |
Terrace at +4 +5 m; sands and shells with Cardium edule L., Chlamys, Ostrea, Mytilus? | ||||||||
| Old Black Sea | Clayey sands with Cardium edule L. etc. at ?10 ?20? m water depth on shelf | Clayey sands with Cardium edule L. etc. at?? -10 -20 m water depth on shelf |
Clayey sands with Cardium edule L. etc. at?? -10 -20 m water depth on shelf | ||||||||
|
Pleistocene |
Upper |
Grimaldian ? Wűrm (regression to -100 -130 m) |
Ostashkovian |
Neoeuxinian |
Late?? Neoeuxinian | Wűrmian loess ; clays with Monodacna caspia Eichw., Dreissea polymorpha Pall.,at ?20 ?30 m water depth on shelf | Clays with Monodacna caspia Eichw., Dreissea polymorpha Pall., at ?20 ?30 m water depth on shelf |
Clays with Monodacna caspia Eichw., Dreissea polymorpha Pall., at ?20 ?30 m water depth on shelf | |||
| Mologo-Sheksnian |
Early? Neoeuxinian (Postkarangatian) |
Regression to ?60 ? 80?? (-130) m.? Wűrmian loess. Deepening of the valleys incisions |
Loesslike deposits; alluvial-deltaic sands, deepening of Kertch strait. |
Regression ; deepening of the valleys incisions to ?60 ?80 m. | |||||||
| Kalininian | |||||||||||
|
Neotyrrhenian (terrace at? 2-8 m above SL) |
Mykulinian |
Karangatian |
Upper Karangatian |
Terrace at +15 +16 m Shells and sands with Cardium tuberculatum L., Paphia senescens (Coc.) etc. |
Terrace at? +8 +12 m (4?8 m Taman) Shells and clays with Cardium tuberculatum L., Paphia senescens (Coc.), Aporrhais pespelicani L. etc. At the base clays with? Paphia senescens (Coc.), Cerithium vulgatum Burg. |
Terrace at +12 +15 m (Pshady valley), +25 +30 m (in Sochi region); Shells with Cardium tuberculatum L., Paphia senescens (Coc.), Aporrhais pespelicani L., Cerithium vulgatum Burg.etc. | |||||
| Lower Karangatian | |||||||||||
|
Middle |
Regression (Riss II ?) Deepening of Bosporus to - 100 m |
Moskovian |
Upper Euxinian-Uzunlarian |
Regression | Regression.
Clayey loess-like deposits. |
Clayey deposits with Limneea, Planorbis ; pebbles with Viviparus |
Regression. Alluvial pebbles, terminal moraine at Amtkheli. | ||||
|
Eutyrrhenian (Tyrrhenian Ib) (terrace at 10-20 m) |
Odyntzovian | Uzunlarian |
Terrace at +35 +40 m (Bulgaria) Upper Babel layers, sands with Didacna nalivkini Wass. etc., Uppermost lagoonal clays |
Clayey sands with Cardium edule L., Didacna nalivkini Wass. etc. |
Terrace at +25 +30 m (Pshady) and +35 +37m (Pshady valley); pebbles, sands with Cardium edule L., Mactra stultorum L., Scrobicularia | ||||||
|
Regression (Riss I ?) |
Dneprian |
Late Paleoeuxinian | Sands and clays with Didacna? nalivkini Wass., D.pontocaspia Pavl., Viviparus |
Terrace at 40?43 m (Pshady valley); Sands, conglom., limstones with D.nalivkini Wass., D. subpiramidata Prav., at the base Balanus | |||||||
|
Lower Euxinian-Uzunlarian |
Regression | Regression | Regression |
Regression, Dilluvium | |||||||
|
Paleotyrrhenian (Tyrrhenian I-a) (terrace at 18-30 m) |
Lykhvinian |
Paleouzunlarian |
Sands, clays with Didacna pallasi Prav., D.nalivkini Wass. Lower Babel layers. Lagoonal clays with Didacna pseudocrassa Pavl. etc. |
Continental deposits within the Mandzhil terrace |
Terrace at +45 +50 m (at Ashe, Makopse, Magri); pebbles with C.edule, Paphia sp., Chione gallina | ||||||
| Early Paleoeuxinian |
Terrace at? +60 +65 m (Dzhubgy); sands, pebbles with Didacna baericrassa Pavl., D.pallassi Prav., C.edule L. | ||||||||||
|
Lower |
Mindel (Roman regression) |
Okan |
Regression |
Alluvial sands with Viviparus and Tyraspol complex of mammalians | Top deposits with Archidiscodon sp. |
Regression | |||||
|
Cromerian |
Sicilian 2
Terrace? at 60 m |
Dnestrian |
Tchaudian |
Upper Tchaudian | Shells, sands with Didacna pseudocrassa Pavl., D. tschaudae Andrus., D.rudis Nal. ;Terrace ? Large tables ? (Bolshye stoly) |
Terrace +40 +55 m(at Pshady), +100 +105 m (at Pshady valley), ~+130 m (at Sochi) ; Congl.,sands with? D.pseudocrassa,????? D. Tschaudae, D.rudis | |||||
|
Sicilian 1 Terrace? at 100 m |
Lower Tchaudian |
Clayey??? continental?? deposits Sands with Didacna baericrassa, D.parvula, V.pseudoachatinoides, Fagotia esperi |
Sandy-clayey deposits of Guria with D. tschaudae, D. tschaudae guriana Livent., D.crassa guriensis Newesk., D. pleisto-pleura (Davit), D.pseudocrassa | ||||||||
|
Gurian ?Tchaudian | |||||||||||
|
Gűnz (regression) |
Regression | Sands and clays with Archidiscodon meridionalis Nest. (late) within
Nogaysk outcrop |
Continental deposits with Taman complex of mammalian fauna | Deposits with Gurian-Tschaudian fauna | Break | ||||||
|
Eopleistocene |
Emilian-Calabrian |
Morozovian-Nogayskian |
Gurian |
Gurian deposits |
Clays with Didacna digressa Livent. etc. | ||||||
Table 1B.3. Stratigraphy and correlations of Upper Quaternary phases for shelf and bathyal zones (with slight modification from Scherbakov et al., 1979)
|
Northern? Europe |
BLACK SEA | |||||||||||||||||||
|
Stratigraphic subdivisions |
Bathymetric zone 0-50 m |
Bathymetric zone 50-200 m |
Bathyal zone - northern part |
Bathyal zone - southern part | ||||||||||||||||
| Layers |
Molluscs |
Horizon | Molluscs | Diatomaea | Horizon |
Diatoms, molluscs |
Horizon |
Nannopl,dinoflagelates |
Age | |||||||||||
|
Holocene |
Upper |
Subatlantic -?? 2,800 Sub-boreal -?? 4,800 Atlantic -?? 7,800 Boreal -?? 9,400 Pre-boreal -?? 10,200 Younger Dryas Aller?d Lower Dryass B?lling Gothiglacial Pomeranian Frankfurtian Brandenburgian -?? 25,000 Paudorf Arcy Gotweig -?? 40,000 -?? ~ 65,000 Eemian -?? ~125,000 |
Dzhemetinian |
Divaricella divaricata Gafrarium minimum Pitar rudis????????? Cardium papillosum |
Phaseolinus muds | Modiolus phaseolinus | Coscinodiscus radiatus
Thalassiosira excentrica Actinocyclus ehrenbergii Cyclotella kutzingiana Cyclotella aceolata |
Cocolith ooze |
Coscinodiscus radiatus Endictia oceanica Thalassiosira excentrica Asteromphalus robustus Rhizosolenia calcar avis |
Cocolith ooze Unit 1 |
Emiliania huxlei Lingulodinium sp. Peridinium sp. |
7,090? 180 8,600? 200 13,850?200 16,900?270 22,000 25,000 40,000 | ||||||||
|
Lower |
Neoeuxin |
Monodacna caspia Dreissena polymorpha Dreissena polymorpha Viviparus fasciatus Unio sp. |
8,550 ? 130 13,500?1,500 17,760 ? 200 |
Monodacna caspia Dreissena rostriformis bugensis Dreissena rostriformis distincta Dreissena rostriformis distincta |
Stephanodiscus astraea Melosira arenaria Diploneis domblitensis |
Hydrotroilitic muds Terrigenous brown ? oxydated ? muds Clayey muds |
Stephanodiscus astraea Fragments and young forms of : Dreissena rostriformis Monodacna caspia |
Nannofossil-rich terrigenous mud Lacustrian phase |
Reworked Cretaceous. Paleogen, Neoge Cocoliths Tectatodinium spirifirites | |||||||||||
|
Upper? Pleistocene |
Wűrm? (Valdai) |
Upper |
Ostashkovian glaciation | |||||||||||||||||
| Karkinitian |
Dreissena polymorpha Cardium edule |
Dreissena rostriformis distincta |
Micromelania caspia | |||||||||||||||||
| Tarkhankutian |
Cardium edule Abra ovata Dreissena polymorpha |
~ 22,000 ~ 25,000 |
Abbreviations : M-S.ig. = Mologo-Sheksnian interglacial K.g.????? = Kalininian? glacial |
Cardium edule |
Marine phase | |||||||||||||||
|
Middle |
M-S.ig. |
Surozhian | ||||||||||||||||||
|
Lower |
K.g |
Regression | ||||||||||||||||||
|
Post-Karangatian | ||||||||||||||||||||
|
Riss-Wűrm |
Mikulinian interglacial |
Karangatian | ||||||||||||||||||
Aksu, A. E., Hiscott, R. N., Kaminski, M. A., Mudie, P. J., Gillespie, H., Abrajano, T., and Yasar, D., 2002a, Last glacial-Holocene paleoceanography of the Black Sea and Marmara Sea: stable isotopic, foraminiferal and coccolith evidence: Marine Geology, v. 190, no. 1-2, p. 119-149.
Aksu, A. E., Hiscott, R. N., Mudie, P. J., Rochon, A., Kaminski, M. A., Abrajano, T., and Yasar, D., 2002b, Persistent Holocene outflow from the Black Sea to the eastern Mediterranean contradicts Noah's Flood hypothesis: GSA Today, no. May, p. 4-10.
Aksu, A. E., Hiscott, R. N., and Yasar, D., 1999, Oscillating Quaternary water levels of the Marmara Sea and vigorous outflow into the Aegean Sea from the Marmara Sea Black Sea drainage corridor: Marine Geology, v. 153, no. 1-4, p. 275-302.
Aksu, A. E., Hiscott, R. N., Yasar, D., Isler, F. I., and Marsh, S., 2002c, Seismic stratigraphy of Late Quaternary deposits from the southwestern Black Sea shelf: evidence for non-catastrophic variations in sea-level during the last ~10000 yr: Marine Geology, v. 190, no. 1-2, p. 61-94.
Algan, O., ?agatay, N., Tchepalyga, A. L., Ongan, D., Eastoe, C., and G?kasan, E., 2001, Stratigraphy of the sediment infill in Bosphorus Strait: water exchange between the Black and Mediterranean Seas during the last glacial-Holocene: Geo-Marine Letters, v. 20, no. 4, p. 209-218.
Algan, O., Gokasan, E., Gazioglu, C., Yucel, Z. Y., Alpar, B., Guneysu, C., Kirci, E., Demirel, S., Sari, E., and Ongan, D., 2002, A high-resolution seismic study in Sakarya Delta and Submarine Canyon, southern Black Sea shelf: Continental Shelf Research, v. 22, no. 10, p. 1511-1527.
Andrusov, N.I. 1892. Some results of the expedition of ?Tchernomoryetz?: About the genesis of the hydrogene sulphide in the Black Sea waters. Comm. Russian Geographical Soc. 28, 5: 89-94 (in Russian).
Andrusov, N.I., 1926. Paleogeographical maps of the Black Sea region in the Upper Pliocene, Pontic, Tchaudian and in the Euxinian Lake epoch? Bull. MOIP, Sect. Geology 4, 3-4: 35-46 (in Russian).
Arkhangelskyi, A. D. 1927. ?On the Black sea sediments and their importance in the knowledge of sedimentary deposits.? Bull MOIP, Sect. Geology 5, 3-4: 199-264 (in Russian).
Arkhangelskyi, A.D., and N. M. Strakhov. 1932. The geological structure of the Black Sea.Bull MOIP, Sect. Geology 10, 1: 3-104 (in Russian).
Arkhangelskyi, A.D., and N. M. Strakhov , 1938. The geological structure of the Black Sea and its evolution. Moscow-Leningrad: Ed. Acad. Sc. USSR (in Russian).
Arkhipov, S. A., Ehlers, J., Johnson, R. G., and Wright, H. E. J., 1995, Glacial drainage towards the Mediterranean during the middle and late Pleistocene.: Boreas, v. 24, no. 3, p. 196-206.
Ballard, R. D., Coleman, D. F., and Rosenberg, G., 2000, Further evidence of abrupt Holocene drowning of the Black Sea shelf: Marine Geology, v. 170, no. 3-4, p.253-261.
Balkas, T., G. Dechev, R. Mihnea, O. Serbanescu, and U.Unl?ata. 1990. State of marine environment in the Black Sea region. UNEP Regional Seas Report and Studies 124, UNEP.
Bern?, S., Auffret, J.-P., and Walker, P., 1988, Internal structure of subtidal sand waves revealed by high-resolution seismic reflection: Sedimentology, v. 35, p. 5-20.
Bern?, S., Lericolais, G., Marsset, T., Bourillet, J.-F., and De Batist, M., 1998, Erosional offshore sand ridges and lowstand shore-facies : examples from tide and wave dominated environments of France: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 68, no. 4, p. 540-555.
Bondar, C., 1998, Hydromorphological relation characterizing the Danube river mouths and the coastal zone in front of the Danube delta: Geo-Eco-Marina, v. 3, p. 99-102.
Calvert, S. E., and Fontugne, M. R., 1987, Stable carbon isotopic evidence for the marine origin of the organic matter in the Holocene Black Sea sapropel: Chemical Geology, v. 66, no. 3-4, p. 315-322.
Carter, R. W. G., Hesp, P. A., Nordstrom, K. F., and Psuty, N. P., 1990a, Erosional landforms in coastal dunes, in Nordstrom, K. F., Psuty, N. P., and Carter, R. W. G., eds., coastal dunes; processes and morphology: Chichester (United Kingdom), John Wiley & Sons, p. 217-250.
Carter, R. W. G., Nordstrom, K. F., and Psuty, N. P., 1990b, The study of coastal dunes, in Nordstrom, K. F., Psuty, N. P., and Carter, R. W. G., eds., Coastal dunes; processes and morphology: Chichester (United Kingdom), John Wiley & Sons, p. 1-14.
Correggiari, A., Field, M. E., and Trincardi, F., 1996, Late Quaternary transgressive large dunes on the sediment-starved Adriatic shelf, in De Batist, M., and Jacobs, P., eds., Geology of Siliciclastic Shelf Seas.: London, Geological Society Special Publication, p. 155-169.
Demirbag, E., G?kasan, E., Oktay, F. Y., Simsek, M., and Y?ce, H., 1999, The last sea level changes in the Black Sea: Evidence from the seismic data: Marine Geology, v. 157, no. 3-4, p. 249-265.
Dimitrov, P. S., 1982, Radiocarbon datings of bottom sediments from the Bulgarian Black Sea Shelf: Bulg. Acad. Sci. Oceanology, v. 9, p. 45-53.
Evsylekov, Y. D., and Shimkus, K. M., 1995, Geomorphological and neotectonic development of outer part of continental margin to the south of Kerch Strait: Oceanology, v. 35, p. 623-628.
Fairbanks, R. G., 1989, A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level record; influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation: Nature, v. 342, no. 6250, p. 637-642.
Fedorov P.V., 1978. The Pleistocene of the Ponto-Caspian Region. Trudy Geol.Inst. Acad,Sc.USSR, Nauka, Moscow, 168 p. (in Russian).
Fedorov, P. V., 1988, The problem of changes in the level of the Black Sea during the Pleistocene: International Geology Review, v. 30, no. 6, p. 635-641.
Fedorov, P. V., 2000, Pleistocene climatic events in the geological history of the Black Sea: Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, v. 8, no. 5, p. 491-497.
Filipova-Marinova, M., 2004, Late quaternary palaeoenvironmental records from the southern Bulgarian Black Sea coast, in ASSEMBLAGE first workshop, Varna, Bulgaria, p. 10.
Finetti, I., G. Bricchi, A. Del Ben, M. Papin, and Z. Xuan. 1988. ?Geophysical study of the Black Sea area.? Bull. Geofis. Teor. Appl. 30: 117?118, 197?234.
Fouache, E., Porotov, A., M?ller, C., and Gorlov, Y., 2003, The role of neo-tectonics in the variation of the relative sea level throughout the last 6000 years on the Taman Peninsula (Black Sea, Azov Sea, Russia), in Rapid Transgressions in semienclosed Basins, Gdansk - Jastarnia, Poland.
Fryberger, S. G., Al Sari, A. M., and Clisham, T. J., 1983, Eolian dune, interdune, sand sheet, and siliciclastic sabkha sediments of an offshore prograding sand sea, Dhahran area, Saudi Arabia: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 67, no. 2, p. 280-312.
Fryberger, S. G., Dean, G., and McKee, E. D., 1979, Dune forms and wind regime, A study of global sand seas: Reston, VA (USA), U. S. Geological Survey.
Giosan, L., Bokuniewicz, H. J., Panin, N., and Postolache, I., 1997, Longshore sediment transport pattern along Romanian Danube delta coast: Geo-Eco-Marina, v. 2, no.11?24.
G?kasan, E., Demirbag, E., Oktay, F. Y., Ecevitoglu, B., Simsek, M., and Y?ce, H., 1997, On the origin of the Bosphorus: Marine Geology, v. 140, no. 1-2, p. 183-199.
Gorur, N., Cagatay, M. N., Emre, O., Alpar, B., Sakin?, M., Islamoglu, Y., Algan, O., Erkal, T., Kecer, M., Akkok, R., and Karlik, G., 2001, Is the abrupt drowning of the Black Sea shelf at 7150 yr BP; a myth?: Marine Geology, v. 176, no. 1-4, p. 65-73.
Gunnerson, C. G., and Oztuvgut, E., 1974, The Bosphorus, in Degens, E. T., and Ross, D. A., eds., The Black Sea - Geology, Chemistry and Biology: Tulsa, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., p. 99-114.
Hay, B., Honjo, S., Kempe, S., Ittekkot, V., Degens, E., Konuk, T., and Izdar, E., 1990, Interannual variability of particle flux in the Northwestern Black Sea: Deep Sea Research, v. 37, p. 911-928.
Hay, B. J., Arthur, M. A., Dean, W. E., Neff, E. D., and Honjo, S., 1991, Sediment deposition in the Late Holocene abyssal Black Sea with climatic and chronological implications: Deep-Sea Research, v. 38, no. Suppl.2, p. S1211-S1235.
Jones, G. A., and Gagnon, A. R., 1994, Radiocarbon chronology of Black Sea sediments: Deep Sea Research 1, v. 41, no. 3, p. 531-557.
Jous?, A. P., and Mukhina, V. V., 1978, Diatom units and the paleogeography of the Black Sea in the Late Cenozoic (DSDP, leg 42B).
Kenyon, N. H., and Stride, A. H., 1968, The crest length and sinuosity of some marine sand waves: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 38, p. 255-259.
Konyukhov, A. I., 1997, The Danube submarine fan: specific features of the structure and sediment accumulation: Lithology and Mineral Resources, v. 32, no. 3, p.197-207.
Kuprin, P. N., Scherbakov, F. A., and Morgunov, I. I., 1974, Correlation, age, and distribution of the postglacial continental terrace sediments of the Black Sea: Baltica, v. 5, p. 241-249.
Lericolais, G., Panin, N., Popescu, I., Bern?, S., Ion, G., and Blason scientific crew, 1998, Danube and Dniepr paleovalleys : New discoveries during BlaSON survey on the north western Black Sea shelf, in 3rd International Conference on the Petroleum Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Black and Caspian Seas Area., Neptun, Constanza (Romania), p. 34.
Lericolais, G., Popescu, I., Guichard, F., Popescu, S. M., and Manolakakis, L., 2007, Water-level fluctuations in the Black Sea since the Last Glacial Maximum, in Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A. S., Panin, N., and Dolukhanov, P.M., eds., The Black Sea Flood Question: Changes in Coastline, Climate, and Human Settlement.
Lericolais, G., Popescu, I., Panin, N., Guichard, F., Popescu, S. M., and Manolakakis, L., 2003, Could the last rapid sea level rise of the Black Sea evidence by oceanographic surveys have been interpreted by Mankind?, in CIESM Workshop Monographs, Fira, Santorini, Greece, p. 44-53.
Major, C. O., 1994, Late Quaternary sedimentation in the Kerch area of the Black Sea shelf: response to sea level fluctuation [BA thesis]: Wesleyan University, 116 p.
Major, C. O., Ryan, W. B. F., Lericolais, G., and Hajdas, I., 2002, Constraints on Black Sea outflow to the Sea of Marmara during the last glacial-interglacial transition: Marine Geology, v. 190, no. 1-2, p. 19-34.
Mamaev, V. O., and Musin, O. R., 1997, Black Sea Geographic Information System, CD-ROM, in Programme, B. S. E. P.- U. N. D.P., ed.: New York, United Nations Publications.
Muratov, M.V. 1951. ?History of the Black Sea basin in relation to the development of surrounding areas.? Bull. MOIP, Section Geology, NS 26: 1, 7-34 (in Russian).
Muratov, M.V., and Yu. P Neprochnov, 1967. ?Structure of the Black Sea depression and its origin.? Bull. MOIP, Section Geol. 42: 5, 40-49 (in Russian).
Neprochnov, Yu. P. 1958. ?The results of seismic investigation in the Black sea in the neighborhood of Anapa.? Dokl. Acad. Sc. USSR 121: 6, 1001-1004 (in Russian).
Neprochnov, Yu. P. 1960. ?The deep structure of Earth crust below the Black Sea based on seismic data.? Bull. MOIP.,Section Geol. 35: 4, 30-36 (in Russian).
Neprochnov, Y. P., 1980, Geologicheskaya istoriya Chernogo morya po rezul'tatam glubokovodnogo bureniya - (Translated Title: The geological history of the Black Sea from the results of deep-sea drilling): Moscow, USSR, Nauka Press, 212 p.
Nevesskaja, L. A., 1965, Late Quaternary bivalve mollusks of the Black Sea: Their systematics and ecology: Akad. Nauk SSSR Paleont. Inst. Trydy, v. 105, p. 1-390.
Nevesskaja, L. A., 1970, Contribution to the classification of ancient closed and semiclosed bodies of water on the basis of the character of their fauna, in Obruchev, D. V., and Shimansky, V. N., eds., Modern problems in paleontology: Moscow, Nauka Press, p. 258-278.
Nevesskiy, E. N. 1961. Postglacial transgressions of the Black Sea. Dokl. Acad. Sc. USSR 137: 3, 667-670 (in Russian).
Nevesskiy, E. N. 1967. Processes of sediment formation in the near-shore zone of the sea. Moscow: Nauka (in Russian).
Nikonov, A. A., 1995, Manifestations of young tectonic activity in the southern Azov and Kerch fault zones: Geotectonics, v. 28, no. 5, p. 381-390.
Noakes, J. E., and Herz, N., 1983, University of Georgia Radiocarbon dates VII: Radiocarbon, v. 25, no. 3, p. 919-929.
Ostrovskiy, A. B., Izmaylov, Y. A., Balabanov, I. P., Skiba, S. I., Skryabina, N. G., Arslanov, S. A., Gey, N. A., and Suprunova, N. I., 1977, New data on the paleohydrological regime of the Black Sea in the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene, in Kaplin, P. A., and Shcherbakov, F. A., eds., Paleogeography and Deposits of the Pleistocene of the Southern Seas of the USSR: Moscow, Nauka Press, p. 131-141.
Ozsoy, E., Unluata, U., and Top, Z., 1993, The evolution of Mediterranean water in the Black Sea; interior mixing and material transport by double diffusive intrusions: Progress in Oceanography, v. 31, no. 3, p. 275-320.
Panin, N., 1983, Black Sea coastline changes in the last 10,000 years: a new attempt at identifying the Danube mouths as described by the ancients: Dacia N.S., v. 27, p.175-184.
Panin, N., 1989, Danube delta: Genesis, evolution sedimentology: Rev. Roum. G?ol. G?ophys. G?ogr., v. 33, p. 25-36.
Panin, N., 1997, On the geomorphologic and geologic evolution of the river Danube: Black Sea interaction zone: Geo-Eco-Marina, v. 2, p. 31-40.
Panin, N., Jipa, D., 1998, Danube river sediment input and its interaction with the north-western Black Sea: results of EROS-2000 and EROS-21 projects: Geo-Eco-Marina, v. 3, p. 23-35.
Panin, N., Jipa, D., 2002, Danube River Sediment Input and its Interaction with the north-western Black Sea: Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, v. 54, no. 3, p. 551-562.
Panin, N., Panin, S., Herz, N., and Noakes, J. E., 1983, Radiocarbon dating of Danube Delta deposits: Quaternary Research, v. 19, p. 249-255.
Panin, N., Popescu, I., 2007, The northwestern Black Bea: climatic and sea level changes in the Upper Quaternary, in Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A. S., Panin, N., and? Dolukhanov, P. M., eds., The Black Sea Flood Question: Changes in Coastline, Climate, and Human Settlement: Springer.
Pazyuk, L. I., Rychkovskaya, N. I., Samsonov, A. I., Tkachenko, G. G., and Yatsko, I.Y., 1974, History of the northwestern margin of the Black Sea in light of the new data on the stratigraphy and lithology of Plio-Pleistocene bottom rocks in the area of Karkinitskiy Bay: Baltika, v. 5, p. 86-92.
Popa, A., 1993, Liquid and sediment inputs of the Danube river into the north-western Black Sea Univ: Mitt. Geol.-Palaont. Inst. Hamburg, v. 74, p. 137-149.
Popescu, I., 2002, Analyse des processus s?dimentaires r?cents dans l'?ventail profond du Danube (mer Noire) [PhD thesis]: Universit? de Bretagne Occidentale-Universit? de Bucarest, 282 p.
Popescu, I., Lericolais, G., Panin, N., Normand, A., Dinu, C., and Le Drezen, E., 2004, The Danube Submarine Canyon (Black Sea): morphology and sedimentary processes: Marine Geol., v. 206, no. 1-4, p. 249-265.
Popescu, I., Lericolais, G., Panin, N., Wong, H. K., and Droz, L., 2001, Late Quaternary channel avulsions on the Danube deep-sea fan: Marine Geology, v. 179, no. 1-2, p. 25-37.
Popov, G. I., 1970, Significance of fresh water molluscs for correlation of continental and marine Pleistocene of Ponto Caspian. In: Geology and fauna of the lower and middle Pleistocene: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 8, no. 2-3, p. 251-260.
Popov, G. I., 1975, New data on the stratigraphy of Quaternary marine sediments of the Kerch' Strait: Transactions (Doklady) of the U.S.S.R, v. Academy of Sciences: Earth Science Sections. 213(1973), no. 1-6, p. Pages 84-86.
Popov, G. I., and Suprunova, N. I., 1977, Stratigraphy of Quaternary bottom sediments of the Kerch' Strait: Transactions (Doklady) of the U.S.S.R, v. Academy of Sciences: Earth Science Sections. 237, no. 1-6, p. 111-113.
Robinson, A.G., J. H. Rudat, C. J. Banks, and R.L.F. Wiles. 1996. ?Petroleum geology of the Black Sea. Mar.? Pet. Geol. 13: 195?223.
Ross, D. A., and Degens, E. T., 1974, Recent sediments of the Black Sea, in Degens, E. T., and Ross, D. A., eds., The Black Sea - Geology, Chemistry and Biology: Tulsa, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., p. 183-199.
Ryan, W. B. F., 2004, The Black Sea flood; a seed for a Myth ?, in 32nd IGC Florence 2004, Florence, p. Session T17.05 - Myth and geology.
Ryan, W. B. F., Major, C. O., Lericolais, G., and Goldstein, S. L., 2003, Catastrophic Flooding of the Black Sea: Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., v. 31, no. 1, p. 525-554.
Ryan, W. B. F., Pitman, W. C., IIIrd, Major, C. O., Shimkus, K. M., Moskalenko, V., Jones, G. A., Dimitrov, P. S., Gor?r, G., Sakin?, M., and Y?ce, H., 1997, An abrupt drowning of the Black Sea shelf: Marine Geology, v. 138, no. 1-2, p. 119-126.
V. Sedov. 1969. ?Structure of the Earth?s crust in the western part of the Black Sea.? Dokl. Acad. Sc. USSR 186: 4, 905-907 (in Russian).
Shcherbakov, F. A., Kuprin, P. N., Potapova, L. I., Polyakov, A. S., Zabelina, E. K., and Sorokin, V. M., 1978, Sedimentation on the continental shelf of the Black Sea: Moscow, Nauka Press, 211 p.
Shcherbakov, F. A., and Babak, Y. V., 1979, Stratigraphic subdivision of the Neoeuxinian deposits in the Black Sea: Oceanology, v. 19, no. 3, p. 298-300.
Shcherbakov F.A., Koreneva E.V., and Zabelina E.K., 1979. Late quaternary stratigraphy of the Black Sea. Late Quaternary History and Sedimentogenesis of Marginal and Inland seas. Nauka, Moscow (in Russian).
Shimkus, K. M., Evsyukov, Y. D., and Solovjeva, R. N., 1980, Submarine terraces of the lower shelf zone and their nature, in Malovitsky, Y. P., and Shimkus, K. M., eds., Geological and Geophysical Studies of the Pre-Oceanic Zone: Moscow, P.P. Shirshov Inst. of Oceanology Acad. Sci. USSR, p. 81-92.
Shnyukov, Y. F., and Trashchuk, N. N., 1976, A new region of occurence of Karangatian deposits on the southern slope of the Kerch Peninsula: Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Doklady, v. B, no. 12, p. 1078-1080.
Shopov, V., Bozilova, E., and Atanassova, J., 1992, Biostratigraphy and radiocarbon data of Upper Quaternary sediments from western part of the Black Sea (In Bulgarian with English summary): Geol. Balcanica, v. 22, p. 59-69.
Shopov, V., Chochov, S., and Georgiev, V., 1986, Lithostratigraphy of Upper Quaternary sediments from the northwestern Black Sea shelf between the parallels of the Cape Emine and Danube River mouth: Geologica Balcanica, v. 16, no. 6, p. 99-112.
Sorokin, V. M., Roslyakov, A. G., and Yutsis, V. V., 1998, New data on the structure of the upper Danube deep-sea fan: Lithology and Mineral Resources, v. 33, no. 6, p.518-524.
Stanley D. J., and Ch. Blanpied. 1980. Late Quaternary water exchange between the eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. Nature 285: 537 541.
Stanley D. J., and Ch. Blanpied. 1981. The Sea of Marmara, late Quaternary lithofacies and palaeoceanographic exchange between eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Marine geology and geophysics. Rapp. 27th Congress of CIESM 27: 8, 57.
Strakhov, N. M. 1954. Sedimentogenesis in the Black Sea. In Genesis of sediments in modern basins, 81-136. Moscow: Academy of Sc. USSR (in Russian).
Strakhov, N. M. 1963. Some characteristics of diagenesis of the Black Sea deposits. Lithology and mineral resources 1: 3-21 (in Russian).
Talling, P. J., 2000, Self-organization of river networks to threshold states: Water Resources Research, v. 36, no. 4, p. Pages 1119-1128.
Tchepalyga, A. L., 1984, Inland sea basins, in Velichko, A. A., Wright, H. E. J., and Barnosky-Cathy, W., eds., Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union: Mineapolis, MN, United States, Univ. Minn. Press., p. 229-247.
Trashchuk, N. N., and Bolivets, V. A., 1978, A new area of occurence of Karangatian deposits on the NW coast of the Black Sea: Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Doklady, v. B, no. 8.
Winguth, C., 1998, Pleistoz?ne Meeresspiegelschwankungen und Sedimentation im nordwestlichen Schwarzen Meer: Berichte aus dem Zentrum f?r Meeres- und Klimaforschung der Universit?t Hamburg, Reihe D, 129 p.
Winguth, C., Wong, H. K., Panin, N., Dinu, C., Georgescu, P., Ungureanu, G., Krugliakov, V. V., and Podshuveit, V., 2000, Upper Quaternary water level history and sedimentation in the northwestern Black Sea: Marine Geology, v.167, no. 1-2, p. 127?146.
Wong, H. K., Panin, N., Dinu, C., Georgescu, P., and Rahn, C., 1994, Morphology and post-Chaudian (Late Pleistocene) evolution of the submarine Danube fan complex: Terra Nova, v. 6, p. 502-511.
Wong, H. K., Winguth, C., Panin, N., Dinu, C., Wollschl?ger, M., Ungureanu, G., and Podshuveit, V., 1997, The Danube and Dniepr fans, morphostructure and evolution: GeoEcoMarina, v. 2, p. 77-102.
Yaranov, D. 1939. Correlation of the Quaternary of the Balkan peninsula, the Black Sea, of the Mediterranean Sea and of the Atlantic coasts of the Euro-African bloc.? God. SU. 35: 187-204.
Yevsyukov, Y.-D., and Shimkus, K. M., 1995, Geomorphological and neotectonic development of outer part of continental margin to the south of Kerch Strait: Oceanology, v. 35, no. 4, p. 623-628.
Zonenshain, L. P., and X. Le Pichon. 1986. Deep basins of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea as remnants of Mesozoic back-arc basins. Tectonophysics 123: 181?212
